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Quick Mastery of the Solid-State Battery Industrial Chain

Oct 17, 2025 | Technical Literature | 0 comments

Solid-state batteries are regarded as the next-generation core technology for lithium-ion batteries, and they significantly outperform traditional liquid-based lithium-ion batteries in terms of safety, energy density, and lifespan. Their essential feature is the replacement of liquid electrolytes with solid electrolytes, while also eliminating separators. This addresses risks such as flammability and electrolyte leakage at the source, leading to a substantial improvement in thermal stability. For instance, some inorganic solid electrolytes can withstand temperatures up to 1000°C, and are non-flammable and non-corrosive. In terms of energy density, all-solid-state solutions can easily achieve over 350–400 Wh/kg, exceeding the upper limit of approximately 300 Wh/kg for liquid-based batteries. Thus, they are widely regarded as the key technological foundation for future electric vehicles and grid energy storage systems.
Currently, solid-state batteries are classified into three stages—semi-solid-state, quasi-solid-state, and all-solid-state—based on the form of electrolyte and the content of liquid components.
Semi-solid-state batteries still contain approximately 5–10% liquid components, and typically adopt the “solid electrolyte coating + gel/polymer” configuration. This design not only enhances safety and specific energy but also allows the reuse of most existing manufacturing processes, resulting in the highest maturity and the earliest mass production among the three stages. Companies like Weilan New Energy and Qingtao Energy have already implemented vehicle integration using the “oxide + polymer” composite system.
Quasi-solid-state batteries further reduce liquid content to continuously improve performance, serving as a transitional phase from semi-solid-state to all-solid-state batteries.
All-solid-state batteries rely entirely on solid electrolytes for ion conduction and are regarded as the ultimate form. They are currently in the pilot test stage. According to the mainstream roadmap: 1. The construction of pilot test lines will start from 2025; 2. Small-batch vehicle-mounted verification will be carried out from 2026 to 2027; 3. Large-scale mass production will be evaluated from 2028 to 2029. The first batch of mass-produced all-solid-state batteries for vehicles is expected to appear around 2027. By 2030, solid-state batteries are expected to account for about 10% of the penetration rate in power battery shipments, with market demand exceeding 600 GWh and the corresponding market scale exceeding RMB 250 billion.
Figure: All-Solid-State Battery Production Flow Chart

Application Growth Drivers Are Clear:

Electric vehicles will be the first to see large-scale adoption, as the solid-state route addresses both “range anxiety” and safety concerns simultaneously. CATL has launched a 500Wh/kg-class “condensed matter battery,” claiming it can charge to 80% in 15 minutes and support a vehicle range of over 1,200 kilometers. At a low temperature of -30°C, the solid-state battery’s capacity retention rate can reach 80% (compared to only about 50% for liquid-based batteries).
Low-altitude mobility (electric Vertical Take-Off and Landing, eVTOL) and humanoid robots are key growth segments. eVTOLs require a combination of ≥400Wh/kg energy density, high safety, and long lifespan—requirements that align well with solid-state batteries. Humanoid robots, limited by battery life, weight, and safety in extreme operating conditions, can leverage the inherent advantages of solid-state batteries: high specific energy, non-flammability, and long lifespan. At the CIBF 2025 Exhibition, solid-state battery solutions for the low-altitude economy have become a key focus of displays.

Policy Support Is Intensifying:

Japan was the first to bet on all-solid-state batteries, with the government investing over 200 billion yen. Its goal is to commercialize all-solid-state batteries and achieve 500Wh/kg by 2030.
South Korea is advancing both oxide and sulfide routes, promoting tax incentives and milestone-based applications. It aims to equip vehicles with solid-state batteries by 2030.
Europe focuses on polymer-based solid-state batteries while also laying out plans for sulfide routes. Countries like Germany are concentrating national-level R&D investments in this area.
The United States, led by the Department of Energy, funds multiple technical routes. It also promotes collaboration between startups and automakers, with the same target of reaching 500Wh/kg around 2030.
China has shifted from a market-driven model to a dual-driven approach combining policy support and funding: Since 2020, it has included solid-state batteries in key development directions; in 2023, it proposed accelerating the establishment of a standard system; and in 2024, a special fund of approximately 6 billion yuan plans to be organized by relevant ministries and commissions. This fund will target seven key research areas including sulfide and polymer-based technologies, with participation from enterprises such as CATL, BYD, FAW, SAIC, Weilan New Energy, and Geely. The combined policy support and funding will significantly accelerate the R&D breakthroughs and pilot production of solid-state batteries.

I. Upstream Industry

Upstream of solid-state batteries mainly includes the battery material segment, covering solid electrolytes, cathode and anode materials, and other key auxiliary materials. Breakthroughs in material technology are crucial to the performance and cost of solid-state batteries, and many enterprises are carrying out R&D and layout around these fields.

Solid Electrolytes

Three major systems of solid electrolytes coexist, with diverse technical routes. As the core material of solid-state batteries, electrolytes determine ion conduction efficiency and battery performance. At present, solid electrolytes mainly consist of three systems: oxides, sulfides, and polymers. Each has its advantages and disadvantages and is suitable for different technical routes:

Oxide electrolytes (typical representatives: LLZO [lithium lanthanum zirconium oxide, an oxide garnet], LATP [lithium aluminum titanium phosphate, a NASICON-type]): They have high chemical stability, are non-flammable and non-explosive, and feature outstanding safety performance. They are not sensitive to environmental humidity and have wide material sources. However, as inorganic ceramics, oxides have relatively low ionic conductivity and poor rigid interface contact. It is necessary to improve ionic conductivity and interface performance through methods such as doping and nanonization.

Currently, oxide technology is advancing rapidly and has become the preferred route for many solid-state battery startups. For example, the U.S.-based company QuantumScape focuses on oxide ceramic separator technology and has partnered with the battery company under the Volkswagen Group to accelerate industrialization, with plans to achieve higher-volume sample production by 2025.
Domestically, ProLogium also adopts the oxide route and has collaborated with Mercedes-Benz to build a solid-state battery production line; the world’s first mass production line was put into operation in 2024. At present, participants in the oxide route are mainly startup battery enterprises, which advance the technology through binding partnerships with automakers. Among them, Weilan New Energy delivered semi-solid-state battery products to NIO in June 2023 and plans to mass-produce all-solid-state batteries by 2027.
In general, the oxide solid-state electrolyte technology has a relatively high maturity level and is advancing rapidly. However, to meet the demand for high-current charging and discharging, its ionic conductivity needs to be further improved.

Sulfide Electrolytes (Typical Representatives: LGPS, Li₂S-P₂S₅ system synthesized from lithium sulfide + phosphorus sulfide, etc.)

Their room-temperature ionic conductivity can reach the order of 10⁻³~10⁻² S/cm, close to the level of liquid electrolytes, and they have good interface contact. Thus, they are regarded as the electrolyte system with the optimal performance and the greatest potential. Nevertheless, sulfide technology faces enormous challenges: the material is extremely sensitive to moisture and tends to generate toxic gas (H₂S), requiring harsh preparation environments; meanwhile, the cost of lithium sulfide (Li₂S), a raw material, is high, accounting for nearly half of the cost of sulfide electrolytes, making it the key to cost reduction.
At present, all-solid-state sulfide batteries are not yet mature, and the main R&D efforts are concentrated in large enterprises in Japan, the United States, South Korea and other countries—such as Toyota and Honda in Japan, and the U.S. startup SolidPower. In China, CATL and BYD are also actively tackling key issues in the sulfide route.
CATL has laid out the R&D of sulfide solid-state batteries since 2016, with an existing R&D team of over 1,000 people. It completed the verification of 20Ah all-solid-state samples in 2024 and plans to start small-batch production by 2027.
BYD, on the other hand, expects to launch high-end models equipped with all-solid-state batteries by 2027, realizing small-batch vehicle loading, and promote the application by 2030.
The sulfide route has huge commercial potential but high R&D difficulty; its breakthrough will significantly improve the comprehensive performance of solid-state batteries. To support the sulfide route, the large-scale production of lithium sulfide (Li₂S), a key raw material, is accelerating: Japan’s Idemitsu Kosan Co., Ltd., with government support, has invested approximately 21.3 billion yen to build a lithium sulfide plant with an annual output of 1,000 tons. It plans to put the plant into mass production from 2027 to 2028, with priority supply to Toyota’s all-solid-state battery project.
With the construction of large-scale production capacity, the price of lithium sulfide is expected to drop significantly: it is projected to fall from the current approximately 1 million yuan/ton to 300,000 yuan/ton by 2030, which will significantly reduce the cost of sulfide solid-state batteries.

Polymer Electrolytes (Typical Representatives: Composites of matrixes such as PEO, PAN + lithium salts)

They possess both good flexibility and processability, are non-flammable and environmentally stable, and are easy to be compatible with existing processes. Thus, they are the first solid-state electrolytes to realize small-scale application.
Table: Three Major Routes of Solid-State Battery Electrolytes
Source: OFweek Lithium Network, Industry-Academia-Research Collaboration to Build China’s All-Solid-State Battery Technology Platform – Innovation and R&D Platform Upgrade of All-Solid-State Battery Materials, CSC Securities Research Institute
Polymer electrolytes offer excellent safety and ease of preparation, but their ionic conductivity is relatively low (typically only 10⁻⁵~10⁻⁴ S/cm at room temperature), making it difficult to meet the requirements for high-rate charging and discharging. Currently, methods such as adding plasticizers, ceramic powders, or combining with inorganic solid electrolytes can be used to improve their conductive performance.
The polymer route has a relatively low technical threshold and has been applied in semi-solid-state batteries. European enterprises (e.g., France’s Bolloré) once took the lead in using polymer solid-state batteries in electric buses. However, the performance ceiling of the polymer system is limited, and it is quite challenging to achieve high energy density relying solely on this system.
At present, participants in the polymer route are mostly concentrated in European and American research institutions and enterprises, where it is used as a transitional or auxiliary method. For example, U.S. startup IonicMaterials focuses on polymer electrolyte development and has collaborated with multiple manufacturers to explore its applications.
In general, polymer solid-state electrolyte technology is mature and easy for mass production, but it needs to be combined with other systems to break through performance bottlenecks. It usually appears as part of semi-solid-state or composite electrolytes.
In addition, other emerging routes such as halide electrolytes (e.g., chloride systems) are under research. For instance, Japan’s Panasonic is developing halide solid-state batteries. However, these routes have received relatively little attention at present and will not be elaborated on here.
A trend of integrated development has emerged among different electrolyte systems. To balance performance and manufacturability, many enterprises have adopted composite electrolyte solutions: for example, companies like Weilan New Energy and Qingtao Energy use “oxide-polymer” composite systems in semi-solid-state batteries; in the future, there will also be exploration of the multi-component composite technical route of “oxide + halide + polymer”. By organically combining inorganic solids with polymers, both ionic conductivity is improved and a certain degree of flexibility is maintained, so as to balance the needs of performance and manufacturing processes. This multi-route coordinated layout is also a mainstream industrial strategy, with many manufacturers advancing simultaneously in the oxide, sulfide, and polymer routes.
Table: Comparison of Various Types of Batteries
From graphite and silicon-based materials to metallic lithium, anode materials are enabling higher specific capacity. Anode materials for solid-state batteries are undergoing upgrading and iteration. Currently, commercial batteries mainly use graphite anodes, but the theoretical capacity of graphite is limited. To improve energy density, the industry tends to adopt silicon-based anodes in the short to medium term: by incorporating a certain proportion of silicon into graphite, it can utilize silicon’s high theoretical capacity of up to 4200 mAh/g.
Silicon-carbon anodes can increase the energy density of existing liquid electrolyte batteries by 10%-20%, and are also widely used in semi-solid-state/quasi-solid-state batteries. However, silicon experiences significant volume expansion (up to more than 300%) during charging and discharging, which affects its cycle life.
Figure: Solid-State Batteries Will Undergo Iteration Toward High-Capacity Cathodes and Anodes; Metallic Lithium Anodes & High-Capacity Cathodes Are Expected to Become the Ultimate Direction of the Industry
The introduction of silicon anodes in solid-state batteries requires the mechanical constraint effect of solid electrolytes and a certain degree of viscoelasticity to buffer stress. In comparison, metallic lithium anodes are regarded as the ultimate solution, with extremely high theoretical specific capacity (3860 mAh/g) and low potential, which can push battery energy density to the extreme.
Due to the absence of flammable liquid electrolytes, solid-state batteries are expected to use lithium anodes more safely and inhibit dendrite formation, thus realizing the vision of “lithium metal batteries”. However, lithium anodes currently still face challenges such as uneven deposition and interface stability. It is necessary to add coatings to the solid electrolyte interface or adopt special structures (e.g., prefabricated lithium foils, 3D porous lithium, etc.) to improve cycle life.
Many enterprises have already been experimenting with metallic lithium anodes: for example, Sunwoda increased the energy density of all-solid-state battery cells to 500 Wh/kg by using metallic lithium anodes in 2024, and plans to complete all-solid-state battery samples with energy density >700 Wh/kg by 2027.
Cathode materials: High-nickel ternary materials dominate the current market, while lithium-rich manganese-based materials look to the future. The requirements of solid-state batteries for cathode materials also point to higher energy density.
At this stage, high-nickel ternary materials (such as NCM811 with Ni content ≥80%) remain the main route for power batteries to improve energy density, and are expected to be the first to benefit in the era of solid-state batteries.
High-nickel materials have both high specific capacity and high voltage in solid-state batteries, but their surfaces need to be coated and modified with solid electrolytes to improve interface stability and cycle performance.
Some material manufacturers have collaborated with solid-state battery enterprises to develop cathode coating technologies. For instance, EASpring (Beijing Easpring Material Technology) has joined hands with Weilan New Energy to research cathode-electrolyte composite material systems, increasing the cycle life of all-solid-state batteries to over 2500 cycles.
In the future, lithium-rich manganese-based cathodes (lithium-rich layered oxides) are considered the next-generation direction due to their higher specific capacity and lower cost. Lithium-rich manganese-based materials can achieve a capacity of >300 mAh/g, but have problems of low initial efficiency and poor stability, requiring the cooperation of solid electrolytes to exert their advantages.

Other Auxiliary Materials

Conductive agents, lithium salts, and other auxiliary materials are upgraded simultaneously. In solid-state batteries, due to the lack of ion and electron conduction from liquid electrolytes, the role of auxiliary materials such as conductive agents becomes more critical. For example, carbon nanotubes (CNT) are regarded as key auxiliary materials for solid-state batteries, as they have excellent conductivity, can form efficient conductive networks, and are highly suitable for silicon-based anodes with significant expansion. Their usage and importance in solid-state batteries are expected to increase significantly in the future.
Domestic enterprises have already deeply engaged in the field of conductive agents, providing customized solutions for silicon-based anodes and solid-state batteries. In addition, lithium salts in lithium battery electrolytes (such as LiPF₆) may be replaced by new types of lithium salts in solid-state batteries to adapt to solid media—for instance, LiFSI for sulfide electrolytes and LiTFSI for polymer systems. The purity and cost of these basic materials will also affect the performance and manufacturing cost of solid-state batteries.
In terms of lithium resources, all-solid-state batteries often require more lithium (metallic lithium anodes, lithium-rich cathodes, etc., will all increase lithium consumption per Wh), which places higher demands on the supply of upstream lithium ore resources.
Enterprises that control lithium resources will have certain advantages in the era of solid-state batteries. For example, Ganfeng Lithium has global lithium ore supply and has laid out a complete chain from lithium compounds and electrolytes to solid-state battery samples.
In general, as the development of solid-state batteries advances, the upstream materials sector will undergo comprehensive upgrades. Enterprises are proactively making layouts in electrolytes, cathode and anode materials, and auxiliary materials in advance to seize technological and market opportunities. According to statistics, a large number of domestic enterprises are currently involved in the R&D of solid-state battery materials, covering various segmented fields such as lithium salts, electrolytes, cathodes, anodes, separator coating, and conductive agents, forming a pattern where multiple players advance together.

Examples of Representative Enterprises

In the upstream materials segment, many companies have made breakthroughs or possess unique advantages. For example, in terms of solid-state electrolytes, Shanghai Xiba took the lead in achieving ton-level mass production of LLZO oxide electrolytes, with a yield rate of 98%. The powder cost is approximately 60% lower than that of imported products, and it has become the exclusive supplier for BYD’s semi-solid-state blade battery project. It plans to expand its production capacity to 2,000 tons per year by 2025 (accounting for about 40% of the domestic oxide electrolyte market).
In the field of sulfide electrolytes, Tinci Materials, a leader in electrolytes, has occupied approximately 60% of the global market share of sulfide electrolyte precursors, supplying products to enterprises such as CATL and ProLogium. Its mass production process cost is about 40% lower than that of Japanese enterprises, and it is expected to continue benefiting from cost reduction in the sulfide route.
In the field of sulfide electrolytes, Tinci Materials, a leader in electrolytes, has occupied approximately 60% of the global market share of sulfide electrolyte precursors, supplying products to enterprises such as CATL and ProLogium. Its mass production process cost is about 40% lower than that of Japanese enterprises, and it is expected to continue benefiting from cost reduction in the sulfide route.
In terms of cathode materials, EASpring (Beijing Easpring Material Technology) has focused on high-nickel cathodes, mass-producing single-crystal ternary cathode materials with a nickel content of ≥95%. It has also collaborated with Weilan New Energy to develop cathode-electrolyte composite technology, helping to improve the cycle life of solid-state batteries.
In the field of anode materials, companies such as BTR (Bettery) lead the industry in silicon-carbon anodes and have reserved lithium metal anode technologies.
In terms of conductive agents, carbon nanotube enterprises such as CNano Technology provide key conductive materials for high-performance batteries, and have broad market potential in the solid-state battery sector.
Enterprises on the resource side, such as Ganfeng Lithium, and zirconium material suppliers like Orient Zirconic (with 50% of the world’s high-purity zirconia production capacity, which is used as a raw material for solid-state electrolytes), have also gained control over upstream resources through vertical layout and established competitive barriers in the wave of the solid-state battery industry.

II. Midstream Industry

The manufacturing of solid-state batteries has significant changes from the front-end to the back-end processes, which brings both technical challenges and equipment opportunities.

Front-end (Electrodes and Electrolyte Membranes): Dominated by dry processes. Traditional liquid electrolyte batteries require the “slurry-coating-drying” process, while solid-state batteries tend to adopt the process of dry mixing, dry coating, and calendering of active materials, conductive agents, solid-state electrolyte powders, and a small amount of binders. This process no longer uses solvents or drying, which can significantly reduce energy consumption and site space (dry electrodes can save more than 40% of space). Local polymer systems still use the “wet process” for film formation, but the industry consensus is that “dry process is the mainstay, and wet process is supplementary”. This requires efficient mixing (twin-screw/fiberization), high-precision dry coating, and high-pressure calendering—especially calendering, which needs to significantly reduce solid-solid interface impedance.

Mid-stage (Cell Assembly): Shifting from winding to stacking, while introducing adhesive frame printing and isostatic pressing. The adhesive frame forms a resin “frame” around each electrode sheet for positioning and isolation, ensuring tight fit of stacked sheets and reducing short-circuit risks; isostatic pressing applies uniform high pressure in all directions (cold or warm) within a closed chamber to further eliminate gaps and improve solid-solid contact. This combination can significantly enhance the continuity and consistency of ion channels.

Figure: Main Manufacturing Process Diagram of Cells

Back-end (Packaging and Formation): Packaging can still use prismatic or pouch formats, but formation needs to be carried out under much higher external pressure. Industry reports indicate that the pressure has increased from the 3–10 tons commonly used in liquid electrolyte batteries to 60–80 tons, aiming to optimize interface contact and interfacial films. Solid-state batteries contain no free flammable liquids and are relatively safe, but they require longer time for interface stabilization, which places higher demands on the precision and pressure resistance of formation and grading equipment.

Equipment Investment and Capacity Ramp-up: In the current pilot scale stage, the value of newly added equipment per GWh of production capacity is as high as approximately RMB 5.6 billion. After large-scale mass production is achieved, with improved efficiency and versatility, the unit investment density is expected to drop to about RMB 250 million per GWh. If the global newly added all-solid-state battery capacity reaches 80–100 GWh by 2029, the scale of the new equipment market will exceed RMB 20 billion. Therefore, key equipment for the front and mid-stage processes is likely to be the first segment to benefit in the initial stage of solid-state battery industrialization.

Representative Equipment and Enterprises:

Dry-process Front-end: Efficient mixing, dry coating, and forming are the core links. Honggong Technology applies fibrous mixing to the uniform blending of solid-state powders. Nakenuoer has launched dry-process single/double-sided film-forming integrated machines, leads in high-pressure and high-precision calendering, and cooperates with battery manufacturers on customized development.

Figure: Manufacturing Process Flow of All-Solid-State Batteries and Their Equipment Changes (Fully Dry Process)

Assembly Process: Stacking machines replace winding machines, requiring higher positioning accuracy and cycle time; adhesive frame printing is a newly added process; mature solutions already exist for isostatic pressing equipment (such as Quintus), and domestic equipment manufacturers (such as Premacon) are also conducting customized R&D; Laserline benefits from the increasing demand for laser welding of tabs and packaging.

High-pressure Formation: Companies like HANKER are jointly verifying high-pressure formation cabinets with battery manufacturers to adapt to the 60–80 ton formation environment.

Complete Production Lines and Leading Equipment Manufacturers:

Premacon has developed complete solid-state production line solutions, delivered complete equipment for pilot lines, participated in the production line design of CATL and Toyota. Its solid-state dedicated coating machine has an accuracy of ±1 μm and provides dedicated packaging equipment.

Yinghe Technology has in-depth experience in the front-end process, adopts a dual-route layout of dry and wet processes, and has delivered pilot equipment.

Liyuanheng has completed the overall production line process layout and delivered a trial production line to GAC Group for the sulfide route.

Manz China (Manzter) focuses on dry-process electrode equipment, which has been verified by multiple customers.

Xianhui Technology jointly develops calendering equipment with solid-state battery pioneers; **Huaya Intelligence (Guanhong)** holds a key position in front-end equipment.

III. Downstream Industry

  1. New Energy Vehicles (NEVs) remain the largest market. Global automakers and battery manufacturers are advancing in tandem:
    • Japan: Toyota has received certification support from Japan’s Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI), built production lines in Japan, plans for commercialization in 2027–2028, and sets a target of 1,000 km range with a 10-minute charge; Honda has also invested heavily.
    • Europe: Volkswagen PowerCo + QuantumScape deepen their cooperation, planning for a 40 GWh solid-state battery production capacity license; BMW + SolidPower conduct pilot production of samples, with mass-produced models expected before 2030; Mercedes-Benz collaborates with Factorial to conduct 1,000 km real-world tests on EQS prototypes.
    • United States: Ford + SolidPower, with the goal of launching equipped models in 2026.
    • South Korea: Hyundai + Factorial, expected to showcase equipped prototypes in 2025.

Comprehensive Judgment

2025–2030 will be a critical period transitioning from demonstration to commercialization. The penetration of solid-state batteries will start with high-end markets and then expand to mid-end markets, with a penetration rate of approximately 10% by 2030. The adoption of solid-state batteries in vehicles will also reshape the vehicle-battery relationship, triggering a new round of division of labor and restructuring of bargaining power.

2. Energy Storage Will Gradually Expand After 2030

The high safety and long lifespan of all-solid-state batteries make them suitable for scenarios such as grid peak shaving and backup power, with notable advantages in extreme environments (e.g., high temperatures in deserts, unmanned stations). Toyota and Mitsubishi have already conducted household/grid-side tests, and China has also identified all-solid-state batteries as a key focus area for energy storage. As costs decrease, large-scale energy storage systems are expected to gradually adopt solid-state batteries.

3. Low-Altitude Mobility (eVTOL) Will Benefit Earlier

eVTOLs require the “three-high” combination of ≥400Wh/kg energy density, ultra-high safety, and long lifespan—attributes that align highly with solid-state batteries. Ganfeng Lithium plans to deliver 500Wh/kg all-solid-state battery samples to eVTOLs in 2025, while CATL’s condensed matter battery route also clearly targets manned aircraft. The 2025 Shenzhen International Low-Altitude Mobility Conference is expected to showcase a range of solid-state/semi-solid-state prototypes.

4. Humanoid Robots and Wearables

Solid-state batteries can operate in a wide temperature range from –40℃ to 60℃, with no liquid leakage and non-flammability, enabling longer battery life at lower weights. Domestically, GAC GOMATE has already conducted tests using solid-state batteries, and the industry generally speculates that subsequent models like Tesla Optimus will also adopt solid-state batteries. High-end wearables and implantable medical devices also have potential applications, thanks to solid-state batteries’ safety and miniaturization capabilities.

5. Military, Aerospace, and Other High-Safety Scenarios

High-safety scenarios such as military and aerospace also show interest in solid-state batteries. Although their market scale is small, the strict verification standards for these fields give solid-state batteries strong demonstration value. High-end drones, power tools, and other consumer electronics can also benefit from longer battery life and enhanced safety when costs are acceptable.

IV. Multiple Paths Advancing in Parallel

The competition in solid-state batteries has become global:
  • Japan and South Korea excel in material and process accumulation. Toyota, Honda, Panasonic, LG Energy Solution (LGES), Samsung SDI, and SK On have invested in multiple routes (sulfide/polymer/oxide), supported by government funding and joint R&D initiatives.
  • China excels with its complete industrial chain and engineering capabilities. CATL and BYD have invested heavily; emerging innovators such as Gotion High-Tech, Weilan New Energy, and Qingtao Energy are dynamically innovative, and all are pursuing multiple technical routes simultaneously.
  • European and American startups (QuantumScape, SolidPower, Factorial, SES, etc.) lead in cutting-edge technology and respond flexibly. They are also backed by capital and application scenarios from major automakers, including Volkswagen, BMW, Mercedes-Benz, Stellantis, and General Motors.
The trend of cross-border collaboration is strengthening. For example, the solid-state collaboration network led by Volkswagen integrates multi-party resources; automakers also explore joint development with China’s leading battery giants. An international supply chain is likely to take shape in the future: globalized materials, regional localized cell manufacturing, and in-depth customization by automakers. At the same time, countries will promote localized supporting industries out of industrial security considerations.
Policies remain a key driver: Japan’s RMB 4.85 billion project subsidies, U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) grants and IRA tax credits, key programs of the European Commission, and China’s RMB 6 billion special fund—all these measures will reduce the risks of corporate R&D and initial production, attract social capital, and form a positive cycle of “R&D → pilot scale → demonstration → capacity ramp-up”. Local governments (e.g., Xiamen, Changzhou) also introduce projects through industrial funds to accelerate the implementation of pilot lines and demonstration vehicles.

V. Development Trends

The technological evolution trajectory is clear: Liquid electrolyte → Semi-solid-state → Quasi-solid-state → All-solid-state. In the short term, semi-solid-state batteries will take the lead in commercialization (e.g., NIO ET7 with 150kWh battery), and be installed in passenger vehicles on a small scale within 2–3 years; quasi-solid-state batteries (e.g., Gotion High-Tech’s “Jinshi Battery”) are leveraging 525Wh/kg samples to approach all-solid-state performance; all-solid-state batteries will complete the leap from pilot scale to mass production between 2025–2030, with small-batch vehicle installations expected around 2027. There will be no one-size-fits-all technical route—sulfide, oxide, and polymer-based batteries may coexist in different vehicle models and scenarios. The ultimate winner will be determined by the comprehensive score of performance × cost × manufacturability.
If sulfide-based batteries overcome cost and stability bottlenecks before 2027, they are expected to take the lead in high-end vehicle models with their performance advantages; if progress is slower than expected, oxide/composite-based batteries may be deployed first due to faster maturity.

Penetration Rate and Impacts: The penetration rate of solid-state batteries was less than 0.1% in 2023. Starting from 2025, multiple pilot lines will be put into operation; products will be gradually launched around 2027; the penetration rate is expected to reach approximately 10% by 2030, and may exceed 50% after 2035 under the premise of significant cost optimization. The industrial impact chain is extremely long:

New energy vehicle performance will leap forward, significantly alleviating range anxiety and safety risks, and accelerating the electrification of high-end long-distance vehicles.

Energy storage safety will reach a new level, reducing accident risks and supporting larger-scale energy storage integration into the new power system.

The industrial structure will be rearranged: Leaders in the traditional liquid electrolyte era may be overtaken by latecomers if they fail to keep up with solid-state technology, while enterprises mastering core solid-state technologies are expected to achieve leapfrog growth.

Environmental protection and reliability will improve, reducing pollution and power outage risks caused by accidents.

User experience will be enhanced: Safer, longer-range, and more durable electric products will accelerate their popularization. From automobiles to robots to wearables, the energy infrastructure will gradually transition to solid-state.

Conclusion

Switching from liquid electrolyte to solid-state batteries is not as simple as replacing the electrolyte—it rather involves rebuilding a full-stack system covering materials, processes, equipment, and applications.
The upstream sector lays a solid foundation with cleaner raw materials and clearer standards; the midstream sector optimizes formulas, structures, and manufacturing to reach mass-production-ready precision; the downstream sector leverages higher safety and energy density to penetrate more application scenarios.
Going forward, three directions deserve close attention:
  1. The safety and quality mindset of the food industry, when applied to batteries, translates to the ultimate pursuit of raw material purity and traceability.
  2. The analogy to health management, when extended to batteries, refers to the systematic management of interface stability and lifespan.
  3. The engineering implementation that truly enhances care efficiency and a sense of security, when mapped to solid-state batteries, corresponds to the synergy of dry processes, stacking, and high-pressure formation, as well as yield ramp-up.
With the safety demands brought by the aging society, and the new requirements for battery life and size from AI and robots, this industrial chain will become both “thicker” (deeper cultivation in more links) and “longer” (expansion into more applications).
It is safe to say that 2025–2030 will be the critical period for solid-state batteries to move from concept to large-scale adoption. After engineering challenges are resolved one by one, a new era of safer batteries with higher energy density will arrive at a steady and clear pace.
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